Communication Theories
Cognitive Dissonance TheoryCognitive Dissonance Theory argues that the experience of dissonance (or incompatible beliefs and actions) is aversive and people are highly motivated to avoid it. In their efforts to avoid feelings of dissonance, people will avoid hearing views that oppose their own, change their beliefs to match their actions, and seek reassurance after making a difficult decision.
Communication Accommodation TheoryThis theoretical perspective examines the underlying motivations and consequences of what happens when two speakers shift their communication styles. Communication Accommodation theorists argue that during communication, people will try to accommodate or adjust their style of speaking to others. This is done in two ways: divergence and convergence. Groups with strong ethnic or racial pride often use divergence to highlight group identity. Convergence occurs when there is a strong need for social approval, frequently from powerless individuals.
Coordinated Management of MeaningTheorists in Coordinated Management of Meaning believe that in conversation, people co-create meaning by attaining some coherence and coordination. Coherence occurs when stories are told, and coordination exists when stories are lived. CMM focuses on the relationship between an individual and his or her society. Through a hierarchical structure, individuals come to organize the meaning of literally hundreds of messages received throughout a day.
Cultivation AnalysisThis theory argues that television (and other media) plays an extremely important role in how people view their world. According to Cultivation Analysis, in modern Culture most people get much of their information in a mediated fashion rather than through direct experience. Thus, mediated sources can shape people’s sense of reality. This is especially the case with regard to violence, according to the theory. Cultivation Analysis posits that heavy television viewing cultivates a sense of the world that is more violent and scarier than is actually warranted.
Cultural Approach to Organizations The Cultural Approach contends that people are like animals who are suspended in webs that they created. Theorists in this tradition argue that an organization’s culture is composed of shared symbols, each of which has a unique meaning. Organizational stories, rituals, and rites of passage are examples of what constitutes the culture of an organization.
Cultural StudiesTheorists in cultural studies maintain that the media represents ideologies of the dominant class in a society. Because media are controlled by corporations, the information presented to the public is necessarily influenced and framed with profit in mind. Cultural Studies theorists, therefore, are concerned with media influenced and framed with profit in mind. Cultural Studies theorists, therefore, are concerned with media influence and how power plays a role in the interpretation of culture.
DramatismThis theoretical position compares life to a drama. As in dramatic action, life requires an actor, a scene, an act, some means for the action to take place, and a purpose. A rhetorical critic can understand a speaker’s motives by analyzing these elements. Further, Dramatism argues that purging guilt is the ultimate motive, and rhetors can be successful when they provide their audiences with a means for purging their guilt and a sense of identification with the rhetor.
Expectancy Violations TheoryExpectancy Violation Theory examines how nonverbal messages are structured. The theory advances that when communicative norms are violated, the violation may be perceived either favorably or unfavorably, depending on the perception that the receiver has of the violator. Violating another’s expectations may be a strategy used over that of conforming to another’s expectations.
Face-Negotiation TheoryFace-Negotiation Theory is concerned with how people in individualistic and collectivistic cultures negotiate face in conflict situations. The theory is based on face management, which describes how people from different cultures manage conflict negotiation in order to maintain face. Self-face and other-face concerns explain the conflict negotiation between people from various cultures.
GroupthinkThe groupthink phenomenon occurs when highly cohesive groups fail to consider alternatives that may effectively resolve group dilemmas. Groupthink theorists contend that group members frequently think similarly and are reluctant to share unpopular or dissimilar ideas with others. When this occurs, groups prematurely make decisions, some of which can have lasting consequences.
Muted Group TheoryMuted Group Theory maintains that language serves men better than women (and perhaps European Americans better than African Americans or other groups). This is the case because the variety of experiences of European American men are named clearly in language, whereas the experiences of other groups (such as women) are not. Due to this problem with language, women appear less articulate than men in public settings. As women have similar experiences, this situation should change.
The Narrative ParadigmThis theory argues that humans are storytelling animals. The Narrative Paradigm proposes a narrative logic to replace the traditional logic of argument. Narrative logic, or the logic of good reasons, suggests that people judge the credibility of speakers by whether their stories hang together clearly (coherence and whether their stories ring true (fidelity). The Narrative Paradigm allows for a democratic judgment of speakers because no one has to be trained in oratory and persuasion to make judgments based on coherence and fidelity.
Organizational Information Theory This Theory argues that the main activity of organizations is the process of making sense of equivocal information. Organizational members accomplish this sense-making process through enactment, selection, and retention of information. Organizations are successful to the extent that they are able to reduce equivocality through these means.
Relational Dialectics TheoryRelational Dialectics suggests that relational life is always in process. People in relationships continually feel the pull-push of conflicting desires. Basically, people wish to have both autonomy and connection, openness and protective-ness, and novelty and predictability. As people communicate in relationships, they attempt to reconcile these conflicting desires, but they never eliminate their needs for both of the opposing pairs.
The RhetoricRhetorical theory is based on the available means of persuasion. That is, a speaker who is interested in persuading his or her audience should consider three rhetorical proofs: logical, emotional, and ethical. Audiences are key to effective persuasion as well. Rhetorical syllogism, requiring audiences to supply missing pieces of a speech, are also used in persuasion.
Social Exchange TheoryThis theoretical position argues that the major force in interpersonal relationships is the satisfaction of both people’s self-interest. Theorists in Social Exchange posit that self-interest is not necessarily a bad thing and that it can actually enhance relationships. The Social Exchange approach views interpersonal exchange posit that self-interest is not necessarily a bad thing and that it can actually enhance relationships. The Social Exchange approach views interpersonal exchanges as analogous to economic exchanges where people are satisfied when they receive a fair return on their expenditures.
Social Penetration TheoryThis theory maintains that interpersonal relationships evolve in some gradual and predictable fashion. Penetration theorists believe that self-disclosure is the primary way that superficial relationships progress to intimate relationships. Although self-disclosure can lead to more intimate relationships, it can also leave one or more persons vulnerable.
Spiral of Silence TheoryTheorists associated with Spiral of Silence Theory argue that due to their enormous power, the mass media have a lasting effect on public opinion. The theory maintains that mass media work simultaneously with Majority public opinion to silence minority beliefs on cultural issues. A fear of isolation prompts those with minority views to examine the beliefs of others. Individuals who fear being socially isolated are prone to conform to what they perceive to be a majority view.
Standpoint TheoryThis theory posits that people are situated in specific social standpoints-they occupy different places in the social hierarchy. Because of this, individuals view the social situation from particular vantage points. By necessity, each vantage point provides only a partial understanding of the social whole. Yet, those who occupy the lower rungs of the hierarchy tend to understand the social whole. Yet, those who occupy the lower rungs of the hierarchy tend to understand the social situation more fully than those at the top. Sometimes, Standpoint Theory is referred to as Feminist Standpoint Theory because of its application to how women’s and men’s standpoint differ.
Structuration TheoryTheorists supporting the structurational perspective argue that groups and organizations create structures, which can be interpreted as an organization’s rules and resources. These structures, in turn, create social systems in an organization. Structuration theorists posit that groups and organizations achieve a life of their own because of the way their members utilize their structures. Power structures guide the decision making taking place in groups and organizations.
Symbolic Interaction TheoryThis theory suggests that people are motivated to act based on the meanings they assign to people, things, and events. Further, meaning is created in the language that people use both with others and in private thought. Language allows people to develop a sense of self and to interact with others in community.
Uncertainly Reduction TheoryUncertainty Reduction Theory suggests that when strangers meet, their primary focus is on reducing their levels of uncertainty in the situation. Their levels of uncertainty are located in both behavioral and cognitive realms. That is, they may be unsure of how to behave (or how the other person will behave), and they may also be unsure what they think of the other and what the other person thinks of them. Further, people’s uncertainty is both individual level and relational level. People are highly motivated to use communication to reduce their uncertainty according to this theory.

Uses and Gratifications TheoryUses and Gratifications theorists explain why people choose and use certain media forms. The theory emphasizes a limited effect position; that is, the media have a limithe effect on their audiences because audiences are able to exercise control over their media. Uses and Gratifications Theory attempts to answer the following: What do people do with the media?


Based on the information above ,state your opinion  about the theory that has captured your attention.

Mastering the English Language, Is It a Need or a Want?
 By Merlin Pérez (ILE Professor)
 

 Every term, universities,   English academies and bilingual schools and high   schools receive many   students willing to acquire English as a foreign language. This is done not to follow merely a desire to learn a second language but because of the globalisation process that is taking place in the entire world. Demand for English skills comes chiefly from multinational companies that use English as their business language, whereas domestic companies use Spanish for internal and external communication. Despite the predominance of Spanish, the importance of English is significant and the number of English speakers in Costa Rica is growing.

Mastering a language is not easy at all; it requires commitment and a tenacious dedication. Students must learn grammar, reading techniques, spelling, phonemes, slangs, colloquialisms, idiomatic expressions and much more. At the beginning of their learning process students feel comfortable with the language but later on, the difficulty increases when they reach the basic communication level and it is the moment to polish their verbal skills. Furthermore they have to cope with the fact that English picks up foreign words and gradually absorbs them into its lexicon until a point is reached at which they cease to sound foreign. They are not foreign but only of foreign origin. When learners take all of these aspects into account they might feel frustrated and stop trying to achieve the goal of mastering a language and they might resign with the basic knowledge acquired. Some learners can think that mastering English as a foreign language is ludicrous but it is not; day by day more Costa Rican people are obtaining fantastic job opportunities because Americans are delighted with their level of English.

It is quite evident that there is a dire need for English communication skills in order to compete in a globalised world where English is the number one language. And if we want to be one with the world, English is the language to master.

Students need to realise that penetrating in the labour market will be possible only if they keep in mind that mastering English in all its forms is a need and not a want.

Read it and then state a frank point of view about this article published in a   magazine.

And for your professional or personal life, is English a want or a need?

What Aristotle and Joshua Bell can teach us about persuasion - Conor Neill

What Aristotle and Joshua Bell can teach us about persuasion - Conor Neill

Watch the video and comment it.

The First Step in Preparing a Persuasive Speech

How To Make A Persuasive Speech - Public Speaking Tips

ORAL COMUNICATION II: Welcome to our forums . Here you will be able to s...

Employability
and Oral Communication

Read
the following points of views presented by college students about employability
and oral communication and then type out yours.

Issue 1: Confidence

It is, perhaps, too easy to
dismiss being nervous when speaking in front of a group as inherent in most
students, but it seems to point to an important underlying issue, namely
confidence.

Given that most university Learning and Teaching Strategies cite giving graduates confidence, and
among employers the confidence of an applicant is frequently listed as a
requisite to successful job hunting, evidence that over one half of the
quantitative sample group finds a ten minute presentation challenging must give
rise to concerns over students’ confidence in this skill area.

The qualitative study also
revealed the devastating impact that seemingly trivial ‘nerves’ relating to
oral communication can have on a student’s academic performance:

I’m really bad at presentations,
I used to be ok, but last year something snapped and then I had a complete
panic attack and now I’m absolutely petrified of them. I think I’ll just have
to keep doing them, but every time I do them, it gets worse…it doesn’t worry me
in terms of getting a job, but I’m really worried about what will happen once
I’m there. [3rd Year Student]

The qualitative depth research
found that some students will base their choice of academic modules on the oral
communication requirements:

I’m not very good at oral
communications – doing presentations and stuff. I am a bit wary of it, so I
opted for modules where you do less of it. I’ve only given one presentation
this year... I haven’t chosen to do modules where I have to do a lot of oral communication
because I don’t want to be assessed on them because it will bring down my
grades…I just get nervous, and I go red very easily. That completely puts me
off… [2nd year Student]

Issue 2: Technical Aspects

Other sub-skills, tied in to oral
communication, which students found particularly challenging were related to
the technical aspects of giving an oral presentation. Students cited concerns
over ‘remembering what I want to say’ ‘speaking clearly and audibly’ and
managing my notes and speaking at the same time’; Students with Dyslexia found
the latter skills particularly difficult.

Issue 3: Skills Perceptions

More general academic skills,
some of which were raised in the responses to written communication in the
quantitative survey, are also of concern here. A significant (13%) number of
students found ‘articulating my ideas coherently’ and ‘evaluating the strengths
and weakness of my presentation’ highly challenging. Similarly, some aspects of
oral communication that staff suggested were problematic for many students,
such as ‘dividing
presentations into convenient sections’ and ‘summing up presentations’,
are not perceived as such by the students in the quantitative survey sample. As
with writing skills, this may point to more fundamental concerns, namely that
these skills simply do not register with students as important, or are
perceived as irrelevant, and therefore have been recorded as not challenging in
this survey.

Issue 4: Seminars and Tutorials

Most students associate oral
communication with presentations to groups, as a major preoccupation and source
of anxiety. However of number of students also highlighted the difficulty of
talking in other academic contexts such as seminars and tutorials, which were
not always found to be managed effectively:

Also, you have to talk in
seminars, but it tends to be the same people doing all the talking all the
time. Sometimes the facilitator will pick on individuals to take part, but
others just let the ones who usually talk get on with it… [1st Year Law Student]

This approach can be particularly
problematic for students with disabilities in the light of feedback from
Dyslexic and hearing impaired students who reported some additional
difficulties in oral communication in group situations. Ensuring that all
participants are given the opportunity and encouragement to contribute to oral
discussions should be a key role of the facilitator.

Issue 5: Feedback and Assessment

The issue of feedback and
assessment of oral presentations was also raised by a large proportion of
students. From the qualitative depth research, students stated that they felt
they did not receive adequate feedback from their lecturers. However, this may
be an issue of how feedback is delivered: oral presentations do not leave a
physical record in the way that written work does; it is possible that verbal
feedback is not always recalled by a student who is likely to be in a nervous
state.

We don’t tend to get any feedback
when it comes to presentations…[2nd year student]

This area needs further
investigation. It may be that students cannot always see the differentiation
between training, practice and formal presentations where assessment models may
be different.

Issue 6: IT and Oral Communication

Many students made the connection
between facility with software applications for presentations (e.g. PowerPoint)
and proficiency in oral communication:

As a mature student I have had
limited experience with using computer software for presentations. More help at
undergrad. level to learn and master these resources would have been helpful… [3rd Year Student]

We have had to do a lot of
presentations that were really useful and using PowerPoint. PowerPoint is just the most
fantastic tool, it suddenly made giving presentations so much easier – it helps
so much, not just in presentation, but in organising your thoughts and having a
focus for when you are actually talking... [Postgraduate student]

As PowerPoint is used more
frequently in schools, many undergraduates are likely to start their University
courses with a good level of proficiency in presentation software. However, mature students may require additional support.

History Channel Secrets of body language 720p

Cecilia Rose: The Difference Between Verbal and Nonverbal Communication

Watch the video and provide your opinion about it

Welcome to our forums . Here you will be able to sahre your ideas and cope with the contents of our class.

This week you have to answer the following questions and state your point of views as well as your concerns about the topic discussed.

1. Why is Oral Communication so important?

2. When does Oral Communication Occur?

3. When did humans start talking?

 4.Will verbal communication ever die out, or come close to it?

 5.Do you believe there will ever be a day when people don't talk to other people in the first instance and would have to sit and think through how to communicate verbally, rather than learning to use a new gadget and have to look for the right key on a keyboard etc.?

T. Merling